PART 3
READING PASSAGE 3
You should spend about 20 minutes on Questions 28-40, which are based on Reading Passage 1 below.
Should space be explored by robots or by humans?
A The advisability of humans participating directly in space travel continues to cause many debates. There is no doubt that the presence of people on board a space vehicle makes its design much more complex and challenging, and produces a large increase in costs, since safety requirements are greatly increased, and the technology providing necessities for human passengers such as oxygen, food water must be guaranteed. Moreover, the systems required are bulky and costly, and their complexity increases for long-duration missions. Meanwhile, advances in electronics and computer science allow increasingly complex tasks to be entrusted to robots, and unmanned space probes are becoming lighter, smaller and more convenient.
B However, experience has shown that the idea of humans in space is popular with the public. Humans can also be useful; there are many cases when only direct intervention by an astronaut or cosmonaut can correct the malfunction of an automatic device. Astronauts and cosmonauts have proved that they can adapt to conditions of weightlessness and work in space without encountering too many problems, as was seen in the operations to repair and to upgrade the Hubble Space Telescope. One human characteristic which is particularly precious in space missions, and which so far is lacking in robots, is the ability to perform a great variety of tasks. In addition, robots are not good at reacting to situations they have not been specifically prepared for. This is especially important in the case of deep space missions. While, in the case of the Moon, it is possible for someone on Earth to 'tele-operate' a robotic device such as a probe, as the two-way link time is only a couple of seconds, on Mars the two- way link time is several minutes, so sending instructions from Earth is more difficult.
C Many of the promises of artificial intelligence are still far from being fulfilled. The construction of machines simulating human logical reasoning moves towards ever more distant dates. The more the performance of computers improves, the more we realise how difficult it is to build machines which display logical abilities. In the past it was confidently predicted that we would soon have fully automated factories in which all operations were performed without any human intervention, and forecasts of the complete substitution of workers by robots in many production areas were made. Today, these perspectives are being revised. It seems that all machines, even the smartest ones, must cooperate with humans. Rather than replacing humans, the present need appears to be for an intelligent machine capable of helping a human operator without replacing him or her. The word 'cobot', from 'collaborative robot', has been invented to designate this type.
D A similar trend is also apparent in the field of space exploration. Tasks which were in the past entrusted only to machines are now performed by human beings, sometimes with the aim of using simpler and less costly devices, sometimes to obtain better performance. In many cases, to involve a person in the control loop is a welcome simplification which may lower the cost of a mission without compromising safety. Many operations originally designed to be performed under completely automatic control can be performed more efficiently by astronauts, perhaps helped by their 'cobots'. The human-machine relationship must evolve towards a closer collaboration.
E One way this could happen is by adopting the Mars Outposts approach, proposed by the Planetary Society. This would involve sending a number of robotic research stations to Mars, equipped with permanent communications and navigational systems. They would perform research, and establish the infrastructure needed to prepare future landing sites for the exploration of Mars by humans. It has also been suggested that in the most difficult environments, as on Venus or Jupiter, robots could be controlled by human beings located in spaceships which remain in orbit around the planet. In this case the link time for communication between humans and robots would be far less than it would be from Earth.
F But if space is to be more than a place to build automatic laboratories or set up industrial enterprises in the vicinity of our planet, the presence of humans is essential. They must learn how to voyage through space towards destinations which will be not only scientific bases but also places to live. If space is a frontier, that frontier must see the presence of people. So the aim for humankind in the future will be not just the exploration of space, but its colonisation. The result of exploring and living in space may be a deep change in the views which humankind has of itself. And this process is already under way. The images of Earth taken from the Moon in the Apollo programme have given humankind a new consciousness of its fragility, its smallness, and its unity. These impressions have triggered a realisation of the need to protect and preserve it, for it is the place in the solar system most suitable for US and above all it is the only place we have, at least for now.
Questions 28-33
Reading Passage has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for each paragraph from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-ix in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet
List of Headings | ||
i. | Robots on Earth - a re-evaluation | |
ii. | The barriers to cooperation in space exploration | |
iii. | Some limitations of robots in space | |
iv. | Reduced expectations for space exploration | |
v. | A general reconsideration of human/robot responsibilities in space | |
vi. | Problems in using humans for space exploration | |
vii. | The danger to humans of intelligent machines | |
viii. | Space settlement and the development of greater self-awareness | |
ix. | Possible examples of cooperation in space |
28.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph A
29.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph B
30.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph C
31.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph D
32.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph E
33.iiiiiiivvviviiviiiix Paragraph F
Questions 34-35
According to the writer, which TWO predictions about artificial intelligence have not yet been fulfilled?
A
Robots will work independently of humans.
B
Robots will begin to oppose human interests,
C
Robots will be used to help humans perform tasks more efficiently.
D
Robots will think in the same way as humans.
E
Robots will become too costly to use on space missions.
Questions 36-40
Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer. Write your answers in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
Humans in space - the Mars Outposts approach and its implications
One way of exploring space would be through collaboration between humans and robots. For example, when exploring the planet Mars, robots could be used to set up 36____________ and do initial research before humans arrive. In other cases, humans could stay in orbiting 37____________ and give orders to robots working on the surface of the planet.
This would increase the speed of 38____________ with the robots. In such ways, robots might be used to work in space in commercial enterprises or 39____________
However, the final aim of humankind may be the 40____________ of space and this could in turn change people's attitudes towards Earth.
Answer Keys:
http://www.tuonindefu.com/?p=12838
第3篇The Effects of Squirrels' Storing Behavior
第4篇The British Economy in the Eighteenth Century
第5篇Characteristics of Sixteenth-Century European Towns
第6篇Origins of Earth's Salty Oceans
第7篇Regulation of Body Temperature
第8篇Latin America in the Nineteenth Century
第9篇The Meaning of Upper Paleolithic Art
第10篇The Roots of Economic Transformation in England
第11篇Understanding Insects through Fossils
第13篇Development of Mass Transportation in the United States
第15篇The Beginning of Planet Formation
第17篇Origins of the Industrial Revolution
第18篇The Heavy Bombardment and Life on Earth
第19篇Circadian and Circannian Rhythms
第20篇The Greek City-States: Sparta and Athens
第25篇The Difference Threshold and Signal-detection Theory
第27篇Mass Production under China's First Emperor
第28篇Changes in the Art Market During the Late Nineteenth Century
第29篇Ocean and Atmosphere on Early Earth
第38篇The Origins of the Arctic Fox
第39篇Deriving Scientific Facts from Theories
第40篇Industrial Activities in Britannia
第41篇Iridium and the Terminal Cretaceous Event
第42篇The Evolution of Plant Roots
第43篇Herbivores on the Serengeti Plain
第45篇The Documentary Film in the United States
第46篇The Decline of the Arctic Fox in Scandinavia
第47篇The Cooling of Early Earth
第48篇The Commercialization of Agriculture in the United States
第50篇Formation of the Solar System
第51篇E1 Nino and the Southern Oscillation
第54篇Disturbed and Fragmented Forests
第55篇Was There Water on Ancient Mars?
第56篇Guam and the Brown Tree Snake
第57篇Extinction and the Mammoth Steppe
第58篇The Most Common Bird on Earth
第60篇Vasari. Art, and the Renaissance
第61篇The Origins of Agriculture
第63篇Evidence for Continental Drift
第64篇Han Dynasty Tomb Sculpture
第66篇Dinosaurs and Parental Care
第68篇Human Impacts on Biogeography
第69篇Why Water Bugs Practice Paternal Care of Eggs
第70篇Imitation in Monkeys and Apes
第71篇Roman and Chinese Metalworking
第72篇Volcanoes and Climate Change
第73篇Early Chinese Silk Production
第74篇Murals, Frescoes, and Easel Paintings
第75篇Recognizing Social Play in Animals
第77篇Challenges of Mesopotamian Agriculture
第78篇Crown-of-thorns Starfish Populations
第80篇Chemical and Biological Weathering of Rocks
第81篇The Professionalization of Painting in Europe
第82篇The Economics of Academic Tenure
第83篇Programming Computers to Play Games
第85篇Greek Art in the Classical Age
第86篇Trade and Herring in Dutch Society
第87篇Increasing Jellyfish Populations
第89篇Examining the Problem of Bycatch
第90篇Challenge of Dendrochronology
第91篇The Problem with Microplastics
第93篇The Agricultural Revolution
第94篇Christian Thomsen and Danish Artifacts
第97篇Why Did Agriculture Begin?
第98篇Causes of Amphibian Declines
第100篇Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation
第101篇Determining the Ages of the Planets and the Universe
第103篇Milankovitch Cycles and Glaciation
第106篇Early Theories of Continental Drift
第110篇Historical Trends in European Urban Design
第114篇The Early History of Motion Pictures
第115篇Bioluminescence in Marine Creatures
第117篇Sea Turtle Hatchling Strategies for Navigation
第118篇Temperature Regulation in Marine Organisms
第119篇The Brain Size of Bottlenose Dolphins
第122篇Dinosaurs and Parental Care
第123篇Human Impacts on Biogeography
第125篇The Extinction of the Dinosaurs
第127篇The Geographical Distribution of Gliding Animals
第129篇Preventing Overgrowth among Tree Branches
第130篇Art and Culture of Pacific Northwest Communities
第132篇Hunting and the Setting of Inner Eurasia
第134篇Consolidated Industry in the United States
第136篇Controversy about Causing Emotion
第137篇Motor Development in Children
第139篇Mesopotamian and Egyptian Settlement Patterns
第141篇The Emergence of Civilization
第143篇The Western Roman Empire in the Fifth Century
第144篇Newspaper in Western Europe
第145篇Effects of the Commercial Revolution
第146篇European Context of the Scientific Revolution
第147篇Farming New England in Colonial Times
第148篇Population Revolution in Eighteenth-Century Europe
第149篇The British Economy under the Roman Empire
第150篇Weak Electric Systems in Fish
第153篇The Upper Paleolithic Revolution
第154篇The Role of the Ocean in Controlling Climate
第155篇The Faint Young Sun Paradox
第159篇Photography and the Pictorial Weeklies
第160篇Models of Egg Development
第165篇Features of Tropical Mammals
第166篇Extinctions at the End of the Cretaceous
第167篇Europe in the High Middle Ages
第168篇Economic Decline in Europe During the Fourteenth Century
第169篇Early Research in Organic Chemistry
第170篇Early Modern Industrialization
第171篇Attempts at Determining Earth's Age
第172篇Determining the Ages of the Planets and the Universe
第173篇Tree Species Identification in Tropical Rain Forests
第174篇Colonial America and the Navigation Acts
第176篇Costs and Benefits of Dispersal
托福阅读真题第177篇Constraints on Natural Selection
托福阅读真题第178篇The Role of Diapause
托福阅读真题第181篇Artisans in Sixteenth-Century Europe
托福阅读真题第182篇The Origin of Coral Reefs
第183篇The Development of Printing
第184篇Plant and Animal Life of the Pacific Islands
第188篇The Origins of Plant and Animal Domestication
第189篇Mass Production: Method and Impact
第190篇The Cosmological Principle
托福阅读真题第192篇Grain in Colonial North America（答案文章最后）
托福阅读真题第193篇How Birds Acquire Their Songs
托福阅读真题第194篇The Identification of the Genetic Material
托福阅读真题第195篇Individual Performance and the Presence of Others
托福阅读真题第196篇Mating Songs of Frogs
托福阅读真题第197篇Water Management in Early Agriculture
第198篇Environmental Impact of the Anasazi
第199篇Cognitive Maps in Animals
第201篇Primitive and Advanced Termite Species
第204篇Climate Change and the Natufian People
第205篇Greek Sacred Groves and Parks
第207篇Reconstructing Ancient Environments
第208篇Costs and Benefits of Social Life
第209篇Agricultural Society in Eighteenth-Century British America
第212篇The Plow and the Horse in Medieval Europe
第213篇Cereals and Legumes: A Partnership
第214篇Agriculture in the Late Ottoman Empire
第215篇Stone Tools and Pottery Fragments
第216篇Origin of the Solar System
第217篇Architectural Change in Eighth-Century Japan
第218篇Impacts and Mass Extinctions
第219篇Day Length and Flowering Plants
第222篇The Dvaravati Civilization
第223篇Crown of Thorns Starfish and Coral Reefs
第225篇United States Interstate Highway System
第226篇England’s Economy in the Sixteenth Century
第228篇Hunting and the Settling of Inner Eurasia
第229篇Newspapers in Western Europe
第230篇The Classic Mayan Collapse
第231篇The Origin of Earth’s Atmosphere
第233篇How Animals in Rain Forests Make Themselves Heard
第237篇Debate About the Earliest Calendar
第239篇Early Life-forms and Earth’s Atmosphere
第240篇Poisonous Insects and the Birds that Eat Them
第242篇The Long History of Overexploitation
第244篇Foundational and Keystone Species
第247篇Determining Past Climates
第251篇The Sentinel Behavior of Meerkats
第254篇Population Growth in Nineteenth-Century Europe
第255篇Economic Decline in Europe during the 14th Century
第256篇Agriculture in Medieval Japan
第257篇Urban Development in the United States in the 19th Century
第258篇The Qualities of a Good Trout Stream
第259篇Wool Industry in Fifteenth-Century Europe
第260篇The Formation of New Species
第261篇Economic Changes in Late-Nineteenth-Century Europe
第262篇Language as a Historical Source
第264篇Archaeological Evidence of Plant and Animal Domestication
第265篇The Dvaravati Civilication
第269篇Debate about the Earliest Calendars
第270篇Confectioners and Penny Candies in the United States
第271篇Temperature Regulation in Turtles
第272篇Day Length and Flowering Plants
第273篇Industrial Decline in Seventeenth-century Italy
第275篇Three Theories about Origin of Life
第276篇The Distribution of Gliding Animals
第277篇Poetry Writing Course to be Canceled
第281篇Feeding Strategies in the Ocean
第282篇Surface Fluids on Venus and Earth
第283篇The Use of the Camera Obscura
第284篇Mesolithic Complexity in Scandinavia
第285篇Evolution of the Flowering Plants
第286篇How Herding Can Provide Safety
第288篇How Plants and Animals Arrived in the Hawaiian Islands
第289篇England's Economy in the Sixteenth Century
第290篇The Roman Road System of Britain
第292篇Nutritional Changes in Human History
第293篇Accounting for the High Density of Planet Mercury
第295篇Dating the Arrival of Humans in North America
第297篇Brick Technology in Mesopotamia
第299篇The Early History of Jupiter
第300篇The Economic and Cultural Impact of Plant Diseases
第304篇The Absence of Snakes in Ireland
第305篇Reconstructing Prehistoric Human Lifestyle
第306篇The First Settlers in Ancient Amazonia
第307篇Understanding Ancient Mesoamerican Art
第308篇Wet and Dry Periods on the Great Plains
第311篇The Beginning of Organizational Psychology
第313篇Spanish Exploration of the Americas
第314篇The Composition of Meteors
第315篇Early European Tapestries
第316篇Sexual Dimorphism in Lamprologus Callipterus
第318篇Class Structures in Postwar Europe
第319篇What Made Venetian Art Different
第320篇The Age of Sailing in Europe
第321篇Euglena : Ecosystem Engineers
第322篇Naturalism and Nature in Art
第323篇Plant and Animal Domestication
第324篇The Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect
第325篇Megafauna Extinctions in Ancient Australia
第332篇The Ecological Roles of Birds
第335篇Porcelain in Seventeenth-and Eighteenth-Century England
第336篇Transitions in World Populations
第340篇Continuous Script and Oral Culture in Europe
第343篇The Birth of the Printing Press in Europe
第344篇Energy Distribution in Plants
第345篇The Early American Economy
第347篇Ceology's Impact on the Economy of the United States
第348篇Industrial Activities in Britannia
第351篇Examining the Diets of Prehistoric People
第352篇The Development of Factories
第354篇Changes in the Amount of Forest on the Great Plains
第355篇Interpreting Prehistoric Cave Art
第356篇The Importance of Mail Service to the Early United States
第357篇Imitation in Child Development
第359篇Cotton Ginning and Interchangeable Parts:The Legacy of
第362篇Bumblebee Heat Regulation
第363篇The Theory of Plate Tectonics
第365篇Did Sauropods Live in Swamps
第367篇The Palaces of Minoan Crete
第371篇Pastoralism and Agriculture in Iran
第372篇Mesolithic Complexity in Scandinavia
第373篇Evolution of the Flowering Plants
第374篇How Herding Can Provide Safety
第377篇Feeding Strategies In The Ocean
第379篇The Development of Social Complexity
第380篇Seasonal Succession In Phytoplankton
第382篇The Decline of Venetian Shipping
第383篇The Evolutionary Origin of Plants
第388篇The Origin of the Pacific Island People
第390篇The Commercialization of Pearl River Agriculture
第392篇Characteristics of Pterosaurs
第393篇Auditory Perception in Infancy
第394篇The Development of Complex Societies in Ancient Mexico
第395篇The Commercialization of Lumber
第396篇Overkill of the North American Megafauna
第398篇From Fish to Terrestrial Vertebrates
第399篇The Use Of The Camera Obscura
第402篇The Development of Land Flora
第403篇Evolution in Peppered Moths
第404篇United States Literature and Art in the Nineteenth Century
第405篇Development of Intensive Agriculture
第406篇Why Did Nonavian Dinosaurs Become Extinct?
第408篇A Mutualistic Fungus of Tall Fescue Grass
第409篇How Old is the Continental Crust?
第411篇The Development of Steam Power
第412篇Protection of Plants by Insects
第418篇Pastoralism in Ancient Inner Eurasia
第419篇Deer Populations of the Puget Sound
第422篇How Effective Are Structural Plant Defenses?
第425篇The Sumerians and Regional Interdependence
第426篇Structure and Composition of Comets
第428篇Evidence of the Earliest Writing
第430篇Paleolithic Cave Paintings
第431篇The Empire of Alexander the Great
第435篇Railroads and Commercial Agriculture in Nineteenth-Century
第436篇Extinction Episodes of the Past
第438篇Seventeenth-Century Dutch Agriculture
第439篇Rock Art of the Australian Aborigines
TF阅读真题第442篇Methods of Studying Infant Perception
TF阅读真题第444篇Depletion of the Ogallala Aquifer
TF阅读真题第445篇The Long-Term Stability of Ecosystems
TF阅读真题第447篇The Impact Origin of Lunar Craters
TF阅读真题第448篇Cities and Kingdoms in Alexander's Empire
TF阅读真题第449篇Plant Adaptations to Cool Environments
TF阅读真题第450篇The Use of Jade and Bronze in China
451Is Perceptual Development an Innate or Socially Acquired Proc
TF阅读真题第454篇Early Food Production in Sub-Saharan Africa
TF阅读真题第455篇Geographic Isolation of Species
TF阅读真题第456篇Explaining Dinosaur Extinction
TF阅读真题第457篇Callisto and Ganymede
TF阅读真题第460篇Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies
TF阅读真题第462篇The Birth of Photography
TF阅读真题第463篇The Allende Meteorite
TF阅读真题第464篇Which Hand Did They Use?
TF阅读真题第465篇Transition to Sound in Film
TF阅读真题第466篇Water in the Desert
TF阅读真题第468篇The Origins of Cetaceans
TF阅读真题第470篇The Development of Chinese Dynasties
TF阅读真题第471篇Nineteenth-Century Theories of Mountain Formation
TF阅读真题第473篇Physical Properties of Minerals
TF阅读真题第474篇Conditions on Earth When Life Began
TF阅读真题第475篇Grasses of the Prairie
TF阅读真题第476篇Memphis: United Egypt's First Capital
TF阅读真题第477篇Surface Fluids on Venus and Earth
TF阅读真题第478篇Population Growth in Nineteenth-Century Europe
TF阅读真题第479篇Chinese Population Growth
TF阅读真题第480篇Determining Dinosaur Diet
TF阅读真题第481篇Climate and Urban Development
TF阅读真题第482篇Speciation in Geographically Isolated Populations
TF阅读真题第483篇Early Childhood Education
TF阅读真题第486篇The Origins of Agriculture
TF阅读真题第487篇Autobiographical Memory
TF阅读真题第488篇Ancient Egyptian Sculpture
TF阅读真题第489篇Orientation and Navigation
TF阅读真题第490篇Begging by Nestlings
TF阅读真题第492篇The Origins of Theater
TF阅读真题第493篇Timberline Vegetation on Mountains
TF阅读真题第494篇The Actor and the Audience
TF阅读真题第495篇Visions of the Land
TF阅读真题第497篇Alfred Wegener’s Theory of Continental Drift
TF阅读真题第498篇Representative Government in Colonial North America
TF阅读真题第500篇The Origins of Writing
TF阅读真题第501篇The Commercial Revolution in Medieval Europe
TF阅读真题第502篇Ecosystem Diversity and Stability
TF阅读真题第504篇Early Ideas about Deep-sea Biology
TF阅读真题第505篇Industrial Melanism: The Case of the Peppered Moth
TF阅读真题第506篇Energy and the Industrial Revolution
TF阅读真题第507篇Survival of Plants and Animals in Desert Conditions
TF阅读真题第508篇Sumer and the First Cities of the Ancient Near East
TF阅读真题第509篇Trade and the Ancient Middle East
TF阅读真题第510篇Development of the Periodic Table
TF阅读真题第511篇Planets in Our Solar System
TF阅读真题第512篇Powering the Industrial Revolution
TF阅读真题第516篇Human Activity and the Archaeological Record
TF阅读真题第517篇Taxonomy of Organisms
TF阅读真题第518篇Pests and Pesticides
TF阅读真题第519篇The Debate over Spontaneous Generation
TF阅读真题第520篇The Problem of Narrative Clarity in Silent Films
TF阅读真题第521篇Roman Cultural Influence on Britain
TF阅读真题第524篇Thales and the Milesians
TF阅读真题第525篇Direct Species Translocation
TF阅读真题第526篇Modern Architecture in the United States
TF阅读真题第527篇Crafts in the Ancient Near East
TF阅读真题第528篇The Formation of Volcanic Islands
TF阅读真题第529篇Predator-Prey Cycles
TF阅读真题第530篇Europe's Early Sea Trade with Asia
TF阅读真题第531篇Animal Signals in the Rain Forest
TF阅读真题第532篇Symbiotic Relationships
TF阅读真题第533篇The Geologic History of the Mediterranean
TF阅读真题第534篇Ancient Rome and Greece
TF阅读真题第535篇Agriculture, Iron, and the Bantu Peoples
TF阅读真题第536篇Salt and the Rise of Venice
TF阅读真题第537篇Predicting Volcanic Eruptions
TF阅读真题第538篇Research into Aging and Extending Life Span
TF阅读真题第539篇The Development of Instrumental Music
TF阅读真题第540篇Pinyon Pines and Pinyon Jays
TF阅读真题第541篇The Rise of Classic Maya Civilization
TF阅读真题第542篇Chinese Population Growth
TF阅读真题第543篇Determining Dinosaur Diet
TF阅读真题第544篇Climate and Urban Development
TF阅读真题第546篇The Racoon's Success
TF阅读真题第549篇Early Saharan Pastoralists
TF阅读真题第550篇Buck Rubs and Buck Scrapes
TF阅读真题第551篇Industrialization in the Netherlands and Scandinavia
TF阅读真题第552篇The mystery of yawning
TF阅读真题第554篇The Rise of Teotihuacán
TF阅读真题第555篇Extinction of the Dinosaurs
TF阅读真题第556篇Running Water on Mars
TF阅读真题第557篇Why Snakes Have Forked Tongues
TF阅读真题第559篇Ancient Southwestern Cultures
TF阅读真题第561篇Dealing with Extreme Cold
TF阅读真题第562篇Ancient Greek Pottery
TF阅读真题第565篇Background for the Industrial Revolution
TF阅读真题第566篇Early Writing Systems
TF阅读真题第567篇The Extinction of Moa
TF阅读真题第568篇Forest Fire Suppression
TF阅读真题第569篇Characteristics of Roman Pottery
TF阅读真题第571篇The History of Waterpower
TF阅读真题第572篇The Roman Army's Impact on Britain
TF阅读真题第573篇Succession, Climax, and Ecosystems
TF阅读真题第574篇Discovering the Ice Ages
TF阅读真题第575篇Colonizing the Americas via the Northwest Coast
TF阅读真题第576篇Reflection in Teaching
TF阅读真题第577篇The Arrival of Plant Life in Hawaii
TF阅读真题第578篇The Development of Chinese Dynasties
TF阅读真题第579篇Nineteenth-Century Theories of Mountain Formation
TF阅读真题第582篇The Revolution of Cheap Print
TF阅读真题第585篇The Achievement of Brazilian Independence
TF阅读真题第588篇Latitude and Biodiversity
TF阅读真题第589篇Amphibian Thermoregulation
TF阅读真题第590篇Role of Play in Development
TF阅读真题第591篇The Pace of Evolutionary Change
TF阅读真题第592篇The Invention of the Mechanical Clock
TF阅读真题第594篇Early Settlements in the Southwest Asia
TF阅读真题第595篇Fossil Preservation
TF阅读真题第597篇Variations in the Climate
TF阅读真题第598篇Seventeenth-Century European Economic Growth
TF阅读真题第600篇Artisans and Industrialization
TF阅读真题第602篇Nineteenth-Century Politics in the United States
TF阅读真题第603篇The Expression of Emotions
TF阅读真题第604篇Geology and Landscape
TF阅读真题第605篇Opportunists and Competitors
TF阅读真题第606篇Lascaux Cave Paintings
TF阅读真题第607篇Electricity from Wind
TF阅读真题第608篇Meteorite Impact and Dinosaur Extinction
TF阅读真题第609篇Feeding Habits of East African Herbivores
第612篇NORTH AMERICAN GRASSLANDS
第613篇POLITICAL SYSTEMS OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY
第615篇THE TRICKSTER FIGURE IN MYTHOLOGY
第616篇THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS
TF阅读真题第618篇Deforestation in North America
第619篇The Effects of Sleep Deprivation
第620篇DEVELOPMENTS IN THE CONSTRUCTION OF TALL BUILDINGS
第622篇LIFE SUCCESS AND SATISFACTION
第626篇THE TRANSPORTATION REVOLUTION
第629篇The History of Communication Technology
第630篇The Norse in North America
第634篇THE TRIANGLE FACTORY FIRE
TF阅读真题第636篇Origins of Life on Earth
TF阅读真题第637篇How the solar system Was Formed
TF阅读真题第638篇Economic Growth in Europe's Smaller Countries
TF阅读真题第639篇Hunting the American Bison
TF阅读真题第640篇The Chytrid Fungus Epidemic
TF阅读真题第641篇The Prokaryotic Cell
TF阅读真题第645篇Seasonal Bird Populations
TF阅读真题第646篇The vadose Zone and its Structure
TF阅读真题第647篇The Effects of the Tambora Volcano Eruption on the At
TF阅读真题第648篇In the Darkest Depths
TF阅读真题第649篇Habitability of Planets
TF阅读真题第652篇Atwater Food Energy Value System
TF阅读真题第653篇Towns in the High Middle Ages
TF阅读真题第654篇Strengths of the Byzantine Empire
TF阅读真题第655篇The Medieval European Recovery
TF阅读真题第656篇Climate Change in Early Urban Centers
TF阅读真题第658篇Industry during the Roman Empire
TF阅读真题第659篇Chinese Salt Production and Government Power
TF阅读真题第660篇The Industrial Revolution in Britain
TF阅读真题第661篇Iron, Steam, and Factories in Eighteenth-Century Euro
TF阅读真题第662篇A Transportation Transformation
TF阅读真题第663篇Egyptian Hieroglyphs
TF阅读真题第664篇The Story of Film Editing
TF阅读真题第665篇Monochrome Landscape Painting in Medieval Japan
TF阅读真题第667篇Early Native American Cultures
TF阅读真题第668篇Essentials of Chinese Art
TF阅读真题第669篇Abandoning Hunting and Gathering
TF阅读真题第670篇Cerebral Lateralization
TF阅读真题第671篇Cretaceous Extinctions
TF阅读真题第673篇New Farm Technology and the Horse
TF阅读真题第674篇The Process of Domestication
TF阅读真题第675篇Euglena : Ecosystem Engineers
TF阅读真题第677篇The Importance of Seed Plants
TF阅读真题第679篇Animals and Forests
TF阅读真题第680篇Painting in the Dutch Golden Age
TF阅读真题第681篇Physiological Adaptations of Tuna
TF阅读真题第682篇Early Iron Metallurgy
TF阅读真题第683篇The Solnhofen limestones and Archaeopteryx
TF阅读真题第684篇Escape Mechanisms of Ypsolopha Dentella
TF阅读真题第685篇The Medieval Agricultural Revolution
TF阅读真题第686篇Physiological Adaptations of Tuna
TF阅读真题第687篇The Carboniferous Atmosphere
TF阅读真题第688篇Uniformitarianism and Earth's Cycles
TF阅读真题第689篇Natufians and the Domestication of Grain
TF阅读真题第690篇Egypt in Early World History
TF阅读真题第691篇Natufians and the Domestication of Grain
TF阅读真题第692篇Communication: Bumblebees Versus Honeybees
TF阅读真题693Iron, Steam, and Factories in Eighteenth-Century Europe
TF阅读真题第694篇Formation of Earth's Atmosphere and Oceans
TF阅读真题第695篇Tool Use by Capuchin Monkeys
TF阅读真题第696篇The Northern Long-necked Turtle
TF阅读第697篇China's Twelfth-Century intellectual Influence on japan
TF阅读真题第698篇European Cities and the Rise of Commerce
TF阅读真题第699篇Transportation and American Development
TF阅读真题第700篇Canals and Railroads in the Early Nineteenth Century
TF阅读真题第701篇The Domestication of Dogs
TF阅读真题第702篇Early Production of Paper in Europe
TF阅读真题第704篇Air-Breathing Fishes
TF阅读真题第705篇Freehold Society in Colonial New England
TF阅读真题第706篇A Revolution in Consumption in the Eighteenth Century
TF阅读真题第709篇How Earth's Oceans Formed
TF阅读真题第710篇Impressionists and Their Paints
TF阅读真题第711篇Early Bantu Society
TF阅读真题第712篇Eating Habits of the Tasmanian Devil
TF阅读真题第715篇Control of the Seas
TF阅读真题第716篇Indus River Valley Civilization
TF阅读真题第718篇Glacier Flow and Surging
TF阅读真题第719篇Did a Volcano Destroy the Minoan Civilization?
TF阅读真题第720篇The Sogdians and the Silk Road
TF阅读真题第721篇The Waterfall Environment
TF阅读真题第722篇Easter Island's Statues
TF阅读真题第724篇Modern lnuit Commercial Arts
TF阅读真题第725篇Forest Management in the Blue Mountains
TF阅读真题第726篇The Horse and the Camel in Early China
TF阅读真题第727篇The Ecology of Kirtland's Warbler
TF阅读真题第728篇Europe's Economic Recovery in the Fifteenth Century
TF阅读真题第729篇Forming the Building Blocks of Life
TF阅读真题第731篇The History of Writing Technology in Europe
TF阅读真题第732篇Viral Plant Parasites
TF阅读真题第733篇Roots of the Western Sudanic Empires
TF阅读真题第734篇The Sound Revolution in American Film
TF阅读真题第735篇The Role of Fragrance in Plant Pollination
TF阅读真题第736篇Environmental Impact of the Anasazi
TF阅读真题第738篇Sauropods and Conifers
TF阅读真题第739篇The Formation of Moons
TF阅读真题第740篇Economic Decline of the Roman Empire
TF阅读真题第741Silver in North America in the Late Eighteenth Century
TF阅读真题第742篇Measuring Climate Change on Mountains
TF阅读真题第745篇Centralized Societies: Archaeological Evidence
TF阅读真题第746篇Oceanic Bird Navigation
TF阅读真题第747篇The European Freshwater Fish Crisis
TF阅读真题第748篇The Origin of the K-T Asteroid
TF阅读真题第749篇Food Production in the Early Modern World
TF阅读真题第751篇Text in Dutch Painting
TF阅读真题第754篇Frederick Taylor And United States Industry
TF阅读真题第755篇The Distribution Of Plants And Animals
TF阅读真题第756Impact of Railroad Transportation in the United States
TF阅读真题第757篇Water and ocean life
TF阅读真题第758篇The Productivity of Wet Rice Farming
TF阅读真题第759篇Trade and Early State Formation
TF阅读真题第761篇Oil Painting in Renaissance Florence
TF阅读真题第762篇Cool Early Earth Hypothesis
TF阅读真题第763篇Methane Hydrate as a Potential Fuel
TF阅读真题第764篇The Chemical Defenses of Trees
TF阅读真题第765篇The Porcelain Industry at Jingdezhen
TF阅读真题第766篇The River Nile in Ancient Egypt
TF第767How the First People Got to the Interior of North America
TF阅读真题第769篇Characteristics of Tropical Rain Forests
TF阅读真题第771篇The Role of Climate Change and Ecology in History
TF阅读真题第772篇The Development of Agriculture
TF阅读真题第774篇Greece Emerges from the Dark Ages
TF阅读真题第775篇Animal Communication
TF阅读真题第776篇The Choreography of Merce Cunningham
TF阅读真题第777篇Fishing in Early Egypt
TF阅读真题第778篇The Evolution of Reptiles and Therapsids
TF阅读真题第779篇The Decline of the Large Blue Butterfly in England
TF阅读真题第780篇Cloth Manufacturing in England
TF阅读真题第781篇Origins of the Deciduous Forests
TF783The European Agricultural Revolution in the 16th Century
TF阅读真题第784篇Proto-industrialization in Europe
TF阅读真题第785篇Mate Choice in Birds
TF阅读真题第786篇Sedentism and Farming
TF阅读真题第788篇Canals and Railroads in the Early Nineteenth Century
TF阅读真题第789篇Biological Invasions
TF阅读真题第791篇Pollen Gathering by Animals
TF阅读真题第792篇Can lo and Europa Support Life?
TF阅读真题第793篇Agriculture in Classical China
TF阅读真题第794篇The Postwar Economic Boom
TF阅读真题第795篇Preventing Water Loss
TF阅读真题第796篇Hermit Crabs in Snail Shells
TF阅读真题第797篇The Australlan Megatauna Extinctions
TF阅读真题第798篇Transportation and the Roman Empire
TF阅读真题第799篇Surviving as a Conifer
TF阅读真题第801篇Spectroscopy and the Substance of Stars
TF阅读真题第802篇Effects of Deforestation in Nineteenth
TF阅读真题第803篇London’s Second-Century Decline
TF阅读真题第804篇Changes in United States Cinema
TF阅读真题第805篇Concealing Coloration
TF阅读真题第806篇Maya Population in the Classic Period
TF阅读真题第807篇The Birth of the Solar System
TF阅读真题第808篇Effects of Plate Tectonics on Species
TF阅读真题第810篇The Evolution of Grass and Herbivores
TF阅读真题第812篇The Roman Aqueduct System
TF阅读真题第813篇when honeybees become foragers
TF阅读真题第814篇Agriculture in Colonial New England
TF阅读真题第815篇Archaeopteryx and Bird Evolution
TF阅读真题第816篇Characteristics of Seaweeds
TF阅读真题第817篇The Runaway Greenhouse Effect on Venus
TF阅读真题第818篇Easter Island statues
TF阅读真题第819篇The Growth of Play in Children
TF阅读真题第820篇The Greek City-States_ Sparta and Athens
TF阅读真题第821篇Using Animal Bones to Determine Climates
TF阅读真题第822篇Newspapers in the Nineteenth-Century
TF阅读真题第823篇The Radiocarbon Dating of Prehistoric American Sites
TF阅读真题第825篇Fire Disturbance and Landscape Patterns
TF阅读真题第826篇Habitat Selection by Birds
TF阅读真题第827篇The Theory of Geographic Speciation
TF阅读真题第828篇The Growth of Industry in the United States
TF阅读真题第829篇Expansion of the Inca Empire
TF阅读真题第832篇Canals and Railroads in the Early 19th
TF阅读真题第833篇The Radiocarbon Dating of Prehistoric American Sites
TF阅读真题第835篇Sauropod Teeth and Nostrils
TF阅读真题第836篇Changes in Ancient Egyptian Art Production
TF阅读真题第837篇Changes in Native American Food Production
TF阅读真题第838篇Germanic Invasions of the Roman Empire
TF阅读真题第839篇Money in the European Middle Ages
TF阅读真题第841篇The Beginnings of Radar Astronomy
TF阅读真题第842篇Waking Up: Coming Out of Hibernation
TF阅读真题第843篇The Sistine Ceiling
TF阅读真题第844篇Climate Change and Species Distribution
TF阅读真题第845篇Urbanization of Japan
TF阅读真题第847篇Waking Up Coming Out of Hibernation
TF阅读真题第848篇Wool production in Europe on the high Middle Ages
TF阅读真题第849篇Azolla and Climate in the Arctic and Europe
TF阅读真题第850篇The Australian Megafauna Extinctions
TF阅读真题第851篇The Rise and Spread of Japanese Woodblock Prints
TF阅读真题第853篇Climate and the Ancient Sahara
TF阅读真题第854篇Why Did Social stratification Emerge
TF阅读真题第855篇Thermoregulation in Marine Mammals
TF阅读真题第856篇Irrigation and Early Civilizations
TF阅读真题第857篇Desert Adaptation in Kangaroo Rats
TF阅读真题第858篇Late Classic Maya Agriculture
TF阅读真题第859篇Food Caching by Scrub Jays
TF阅读真题第861篇When Did Humans First Colonize the Americas?
TF阅读真题第862篇Honeybee Juvenile Hormone
TF阅读真题第863篇Plants in the Diets of Paleo-lndians
TF阅读真题第864篇The Younger Dryas Event
TF阅读真题第865篇The Origins of Life on Earth
TF阅读真题第866篇The Royal Palace of Foumban
TF阅读真题第867篇New Light on Dinosaur Controversies
TF真题网1：www.tuonindefu.com
TF真题网2：www.tfzhenti.com
答案＋we-chat : 836064952
Below are all those who want to transfer money to him, and even sell the house to support him.
He also posted more than N transfers from relatives and friends.
One is to support his entrepreneurial spirit.
Secondly, it feels like there will be a resurgence.
Sun Hongbin supports Jia Yueting, and Su Ning supports Evergrande, both of which are similar feats. When a friend or idol falls into the river, regardless of the situation, he jumps forward to save them.
So, today I posted a message to the literary and artistic youth group, I don't have any money now, and there is still over 1000 yuan on my bank card. What do I mean by sending this message?
In the coming months.
No matter what project I undertake, what collaborations I engage in, what products I sell, or what money I borrow.
You must be vigilant.
Because when I don't have money, eating can be ugly.
They will also resort to any means possible.
At this moment, who has no brain to believe me, who will be dragged down by me.
When I meet every friend, I say the same thing. Don't worry about dating me. No matter when, I won't ask you for money. This is my bottom line.
Meanwhile, if one day I speak up.
Don't worry, just boldly blackmail me.
That's what I deserve.
Explanation: I have changed and it's not worth it anymore.
I don't need everyone to save me either. With my risk awareness and asset reserves like this, if I really need to borrow money everywhere, 10 million won't be able to block the hole. What's the use of the one hundred and eighty thousand you gave me?
Red Pants said, "At night, when I browse my social media, all I watch is live streaming on Meow.".
I said, half of Yishui. That day, I was surprised to find that a great writer from Yishui was also grabbing toilet paper in the Meowwu live broadcast room and sharing the live broadcast on social media.
She said that almost every community has delivery stations.
I said that I have previously written about the shortcomings of the Meow Mode. To sum up, there are three sentences: first, loss. The 9.9 yuan toilet paper or dishwashing detergent is still delivered to the home, and one of their delivery stations is located next to our bookstore. I asked the staff of the delivery station, and they said whether it is a delivery fee of 3 yuan or 4 yuan per order. This is completely like drinking poison to quench thirst. In other words, how much money you sell, how much money you lose, is equivalent to giving benefits to people in Yishui. Some people say that the toilet paper you grab can last for three to four years. Secondly, the group is not good. The core consumer groups are county towns and rural areas, and these people are the wool party. Meow's design model should be to attract customers at low prices or at a loss, and then sell high value-added health products or drinks. However, it was found that this group is very cunning, only grabbing 9.9 yuan to deliver to their doorstep and not buying anything expensive. Thirdly, the founder has a low educational background and should have graduated from junior high school or high school and joined the military. The probability of junior high school is higher. Today is not the past, and education is the biggest obstacle to starting a business, which will determine the upper limit. However, if Meowthing changes its mode a bit, it will be invincible. It will turn live streaming into a shopping mall, and then start offline mode, promoting from person to person, which will become a distant good product in the county version. Of course, the risk is also greater, and it can be classified as pyramid schemes at any time. It doesn't matter if it gets smaller, but if it gets bigger, there will definitely be this risk.
She said that fruit is also a big selling point of cats, but there are roast everywhere.
I said, as the saying goes, the target audience is not good. They are all looking forward to spending 600 yuan to buy the Mercedes S600. I believe that when doing business, we must actively choose customers. There are also many customers in Yishui that we are willing to accept, who are relatively economically well-off and high-quality. The meowoo model is a common trick used by health product scammers to make old men and women go to classes to receive eggs for free, and finally sell mattresses or health products. The core is to sell the health products as the last one. However, now people are getting drunk and don't believe those anymore.
She said, I have never understood, but what is the difference between Meowoo and the products I ordered in Ginza from Meituan or Ele.me?
I said the difference is miscellaneous, cheap, and a waste of time, which cannot be considered a waste of time because most people in the county are already worried about how to pass it off. Watching live broadcasts is like watching TV dramas.
She said, have you noticed that many people are just looking for fun to pass the time every day.
I said, in the gym and gym, many people are just looking for drinks because there are always people who make appointments, eat and drink along with them, and pass them off. In the past, people used to say that, and I still doubt that with such a fast pace, who would be willing to spend so much? Later on, I realized that this is the life of most people. I don't know if you have noticed it, but locals like to have people pick them up. For example, they make plans to go somewhere together and always hope that someone can pick them up by car. This is something I can't accept. I am very hesitant to trouble others because I am young. When my group of riders gather, they always @ me in the group and ask me to follow them on the way. After dinner, I have to give them a ride, which is a waste of time. Last time Lin Weiwei came to play with me, she rented a car and drove from Qufu. I took her to my ride party. One of my ride friends said that their car was not at home and they were worried about how to get to the restaurant. A rider on the scene actually asked me, can you let your friend drive to pick me up? I refused at the time. She was my guest, how could I let her go pick her up? Not to mention being unfamiliar with one's place of life.
She said, so last time you asked me why I was late, I took a lap and gave a lap.
I said, others can have no sense of boundaries, we must have, go, go, go, go, go, go, go, don't ride, don't let others ride, it's actually responsibility. I think cars are becoming more and more like a person's home now. Don't walk in unless invited.
She said, last week, your brother introduced me to WeChat and said he was inquiring about frozen beef imports. He said someone had partnered with him and said it was currently a downturn, with less than ten yuan per kilogram, which could double at any time and not drop much. My response to him was that this involved my professional blind spot. Although I am in the meat industry, our main focus is on fast circulation, which is an intermediate link from slaughtering to the market. Although we have contact with imported meat, it is not deep enough.
I said, there is a high probability that someone is setting up a bureau. My brother is a real estate owner in his circle, and I have met two people who are investing in new things. One is doing soybean trade with a boss in Juxian, and the other is doing energy storage. Each person has invested several million yuan in tuition fees.
She asked, why didn't anyone pull you to do these things?
I said, what attracts me more is that I have a natural immune system, and my principle is not to touch unfamiliar fields. Just a Bitcoin, no matter how many people lobby me, I will not touch it. In these years, the only time I have been convinced to accept new things is when Rizhao's sister-in-law pulled me down and allowed me to speculate in stocks. She told me that the stock market is like an ATM for intelligent people, which is the hunting of high intelligence to low intelligence. You don't need to study anything like K-lines. As long as you enter, you will definitely be a predator based on your personality.
She asked, is it possible that many opportunities will also be missed?
I said, definitely. For example, in the wave of WeChat business, if I followed suit, I would definitely make a profit of tens of millions. At that time, I had such a large readership, and if I cheered up, it would definitely be a response, and of course, I could also get in. Chen Guangbiao is engaged in demolition and waste recycling, but he doesn't make any money. Donations are also profitable, and there are holes everywhere he donates. His most brilliant achievement is to start a micro business, make weight loss products, make a big wave, and then disappear. He will still come out when the money is spent.
She said that the distance is like a mountain, and the frozen meat market is extremely deep. You can't just look at the price. There are so many frozen meat producers in Yinan, how many people do you catch in a year? There is Pinduoduo at the port, with pork costing six or seven yuan per kilogram and shipped nationwide. Think about it, what kind of meat is it? Be sure to order less takeout.
I said that when lamb was around 40 yuan, imported lamb was indeed only around 20 yuan. At that time, there was a big V in Wulian, and she wanted to do it. She even entrusted me to contact Equatorial Sister and ask if there were any resources to import lamb from New Zealand.
She said that this is all layman's thinking. Normal meat, good meat, and after customs clearance, it must be similar to domestic meat prices. Otherwise, it will impact the meat price market, either pushing it up or lowering it. Why can't grain prices go up? That's why the huge price difference seen by outsiders must be a huge trap, just like someone who wants to buy a batch of cars on their own, there is always a huge price difference. In fact, the cost you bring in must be higher than that of the car dealers in Tianjin Port.
I said, this is. My brother has a strange logic, and ordinary people cannot persuade him. The only person who can persuade him is me, but he is convinced and not convinced. Oh my, the woman who worked on insurance last time bought him gold, which is cheaper than the market price, but it takes several months to get it. It's like playing a game of robbing Peter to pay Paul. This woman was a former official wife with a strong energy field and attracted many people into the water. My brother asked me, and I said this is not in line with common sense. She sold you 1 million yuan worth of things for 800000 yuan, but only gave you it on a monthly basis. What's the difference between this and what Zhihui Expressway did back then? The Sinopec gas card with a price of 10000 yuan on the Smart Expressway can give you a recharge of 12000 yuan, but it is scattered to 12 or 24 months. The same nature of the game, many scams in the world are not so complicated, just understand common sense. Take e-commerce as an example, making toilet paper, dishwashing detergent, fruits, vegetables, etc. If you can compare it to Pinduoduo, it is cheaper. If you lose 100% money, it means the game is not sustainable. Last time, a few friends in Jinan came to discuss supply, and I also have this view. If it is cash settlement, cooperation is possible. If it is credit, you need to think twice, including Chan Chan who has come to investigate. The key to sustainable business games is to make money. This is not the past. In the past, burning money could have burned moats, but this is absolutely impossible. Can you burn moats in Meituan? Can you burn Pinduoduo? These two are enough. The model of attracting losses and profit-making products through transactions is no longer feasible, and in county towns, acquaintances, health products, and branded alcohol, it is easy to backfire, forming moral backlash. This is just like what I wrote about "Good Things from afar" before. A group of people around me are doing it, saying that there are many amazing products and good choices inside. So I asked, "Why not go to JD or Tmall for such a good thing?"? This is just like traditional martial arts, it can only be self indulgent, but that's not enough. You're really amazing, just go to MMA and play UFC.
Because I wrote that good things from afar will be subject to qualitative pyramid selling sooner or later. There are sisters in the gym who have fallen out with me, not in the traditional sense. Anyway, they are unhappy. They scold me in person, which means that you should learn more and not always stare at your own land.
I thought to myself, is there anyone who studies harder than me?
I only organize my study notes of 20000 to 30000 words every day.
Vaya, pensé que habría un podio, así que estoy un poco asustado. (Risas) Chris me pidió que les contara otra vez cómo es que descubrimos la estructura del ADN. Y como Uds. saben, sigo sus órdenes y lo haré. Pero me aburre un poco. (Risas) Y, como saben, escribí un libro. Así que diré algo-- (Risas) --diré un poco sobre, ya saben, cómo se hizo el descubrimiento, y porqué Francis y yo lo encontramos. Y luego, espero tener al menos cinco minutos para decirles lo que me mueve ahora.
00:36
Atrás de mi hay una imagen de cuando tenía 17. Estaba en la Universidad de Chicago, en mi tercer año, y estaba en mi tercer año porque la Universidad de Chicago te permite entrar después de dos años de bachillerato. Entonces --fue divertido escapar del bachillerato. Porque yo era muy pequeño, y no era bueno en los deportes, ni nada por el estilo.
01:02
Pero debo hablar de mis antecedentes -- mi padre fue, ya saben, criado para ser Episcopalista y Republicano. Pero luego de un año de estudios superiores, se volvió Ateo y Demócrata. (Risas) Y mi madre era una Irlandesa Católica, y -- pero no se tomaba la religión muy enserio. Y cuando tenía 11, ya no iba a la misa del domingo, me iba pasear y ver aves con mi padre. Así que a temprana edad escuché de Charles Darwin. Supongo, ya saben, que él era el gran héroe. Y, saben, la vida como es ahora se entiende a través de la evolución.
01:46
Y en la Universidad de Chicago estaba estudiando Zoología. Y pensé que terminaría, ya saben, si era suficientemente brillante, tal vez obteniendo un Doctorado en ornitología de Cornell. Luego, en el periódico Chicago, había una reseña de un libro llamado "¿Qué es la vida?" escrito por el gran físico, Schrodinger. Y esa, desde luego, ha sido una pregunta que quería conocer. Saben, Darwin explicó la vida después de que fue iniciada, pero ¿cuál era la escencia de la vida?
02:16
Y Schrodinger dijo que esta escencia era información presente en nuestros cromosomas, y que tenía que estar presente en una molécula. Yo nunca había pensado realmente en moléculas anteriormente. Ya saben, cromosomas, pero eso era una molécula, y de alguna forma toda la información estaba probablemente presente en forma digital. Y ahí estaba la gran pregunta de, ¿cómo se copiaba la información?
02:43
Entonces ese era el libro. Y, desde ese momento, quise ser un genetista -- entender los genes y a través de ellos, entender la vida. Entonces tuve, ya saben, un héroe a distancia. No era un jugador de baseball, era Linus Pauling. Entonces apliqué a Caltech y me rechazaron. (Risas) Así que fui a Indiana, que era, de hecho, tan buena como Caltech en genética, y además, tenían un muy buen equipo de basketball. Asi que tuve una vida bastante feliz en Indiana. Y fue en Indiana donde tuve la impresión de que, ya saben, que el gen era posiblemente ADN. Y entonces, cuando obtuviera mi Doctorado, debería investigar el ADN.
03:30
Entonces primero fui a Copenague porque pensé, bueno, tal vez me podría volver un bioquímico. Pero descubrí que la bioquímica era muy aburrida. No apuntaba hacia, ya saben, decir qué era el gen. Sólo era ciencia del núcleo. Y ah, ese es el libro, un pequeño libro. Lo pueden leer como en dos horas. Y -- entonces me fui a un encuentro en Italia. Y había un orador inesperado que no estaba en el programa, y él habló sobre ADN. Era Maurice Wilkins. Estudió física, y después de la guerra quiso dedicarse a la biofísica, y escogió el ADN porque el ADN había sido propuesto en el Rockefeller Institute a ser posiblemente la molécula genética en los cromosomas. La mayoría de las personas creían que eran las proteínas. Pero Wilkins, saben, pensó que el ADN era la mejor opción, y mostró esta fotografía de rayos-x. Aparentemente cristalina. Así que el ADN tenía la estructura, a pesar de que probablemente se lo debía a diferentes moléculas que llevaran distintos grupos de instrucciones. Así que había algo universal en la molécula de ADN. Entonces quería trabajar con él, pero él no quería un ex-observador-de-aves, y terminé en Cambridge, Inglaterra.
04:41
Así que fui a Cambridge, porque era realmente el mejor lugar del mundo en ese entonces para cristalografía de rayos-x. Y ahora eso es ahora una materia en ya saben, los departamentos de química. O sea, en esos días era terreno de la física. Así que el mejor lugar para cristalografía de rayos-x era el Laboratorio Cavendish en Cambridge. Y ahí conocí a Francis Crick. Fui ahí sin conocerlo. Él tenía 35, yo 23. Y en un día, habíamos decidido que tal vez podríamos tomar un atajo para encontrar la estructura del ADN. No resolverlo, saben, de la forma tradicional y rigurosa, sino construyendo un modelo. Un electro-modelo, usando algunas coordenadas de, ya saben, longitud, y ese tipo de cosas de las fotografías de rayos-x. Pero tan solo preguntar si la molécula -- ¿cómo se doblaría?
05:37
Y la razón para hacerlo, al centro de esta fotografía, es Linus Pauling. Quien como seis meses antes, propuso la estructura alfa-hélice para las proteínas. Y al hacerlo, desterró al hombre a la derecha, Sir Lawrence Bragg, quien era el profesor del Cavendish. Esta es una fotografía varios años después, cuando Bragg tenía razón para sonreir. Realmente no estaba sonriendo cuando llegué ahí, porque de alguna forma había sido humillado porque Pauling consiguió la alfa-hélice, y las personas de Cambridge fallaron porque no eran químicos. Y ciertamente, ni Crick ni yo eramos químicos, así que tratamos de construir un modelo. Francis conocía a Wilkins. Así que Wilkins dijo que pensaba que era la hélice. el diagrama de rayos-X, él pensó que era compatible con la hélice.
06:23
Así que construimos un modelo de tres cadenas. Vinieron los de Londres. Wilkins y su colaboradora, o posible colaboradora, Rosalind Franklin, vinieron y como que se rieron de nuestro modelo. Dijeron que era malísimo, y lo era. Así que no hiciéramos más modelos; que eramos incompetentes. (Risas) Así que no construimos más modelos, y Francis como que continuó trabajando en proteínas. Y básiamente, yo no hice nada. Y --excepto leer. Ya saben, básicamente, leer es algo bueno; obtienes datos. Y continuamos diciéndole a las personas en Londres que Linus Pauling se cambiaría al ADN. si el ADN era tan importante, Linus lo sabría. Él construiría un modelo, y nos quitarían la primicia.
07:09
Y, de hecho, él le había escrito a las personas en Londres: si podría él ver su fotografía de rayos-X Y ellos fueron sabios al decirle "no." Así que no la obtuvo. Pero había unas en la literatura. De hecho, Linus no las observó cuidadosamente. Pero como, eh, 15 meses después de que llegué a Cambridge, un rumor empezó a surgir del hijo de Linus Pauling, quien estaba en Cambridge, decía que su padre estaba ahora trabajando con ADN. Y entonces, un día Peter vino y dijo que él era Peter Pauling, y me dio una copia del manuscrito de su padre. Y cielos, estaba asustado porque pensé, saben, nos podrían quitar la primicia. No tenía nada que hacer, no estaba calificado para nada. (Risas)
07:51
Y entonces ahí estaba el artículo, y él proponía una estructura de tres hebras. Lo leí y era pura -- era una basura. (Risas) Entonces eso era, ya saben, inesperado desde -- (Risas) -- y entonces, se mantenía unido por puentes de hidrógeno entre grupos fosfato. Bueno, si el pH más alto de las células es cerca de siete, esos puentes de hidrógeno no podrían existir. Corrimos al departamento de química y dijimos, "¿Podría estar bien Pauling?" Y Alex Hust dijo, "No." Así que nos pusimos felices. (Risas)Y
08:31
Y, saben, seguíamos en el juego, pero estábamos preocupados de que alguien en Caltech le dijera a Linus que estaba mal. Y entonces Bragg nos dijo, "Hagan modelos." Y un mes después de conseguir el manuscrito de Pauling -- Debo decir que llevé el manuscrito a Londres, y se los enseñé. Bueno, les dije que Linus estaba equivocado y que seguíamos en el juego y que debían comenzar inmediatamente a hacer modelos. Pero Wilkins dijo que no, Rosalin Franklin se iba en dos meses, y una vez que se fuera entonces él empezaría a hacer modelos. Entonces volví a Cambridge con esas noticias, y Bragg dijo, "Hagan modelos." Bueno, desde luego, yo quería hacer modelos. Y aquí hay una imagen de Rosalind. Ella realmente, saben, de cierta forma era una química, pero en realidad ella habría sido capacitada -- ella no sabía química orgánica o química cuántica. Era una cristalógrafa.
09:22
Y creo que parte de la razón por la que no quería construir modelos era que no era una química, mientras que Pauling sí lo era. Entonces Crick y Yo, saben, empezamos a hacer modelos, y aprendí un poco de química, pero no suficiente. Bueno, obtuvimos la respuesta el 28 de Febrero de 1953. Y fue por una regla, que para mi, es una muy buena regla: Nunca seas la persona más brillante en un cuarto, y no lo éramos. No éramos los mejores químicos en el cuarto. Fui y les enseñé un apareamiento que había hecho, y Jerry Donohue -- él era químico -- dijo, está mal. Tienes -- los átomos de hidrógeno están en el lugar equivocado. Yo sólo los puse como estaban en los libros. Él dijo que estaban mal.
10:07
Así que al día siguiente, saben, después de que pensé, "Bueno, él podría estar en lo cierto." Cambié las ubicaciones, y entonces encontramos el apareamiento de bases, y Francis inmediatamente dijo que la cadena corre en direcciones absolutas. Y sabíamos que estábamos en lo correcto. Así que yo estaba muy, ya saben, esto ocurrió como en dos horas. De la nada a algo. Y sabíamos que era algo grande porque, saben, si sólo pones A junto a T y G junto a C, tienes un mecanismo de copiado. Así que vimos cómo es que se pasa la información genética. Es el orden de cuatro bases. Así que de cierta forma, es un tipo de información digital. Y lo copias al separar las cadenas. Así que, saben, si no funcionaba así, podrían al menos creerlo, porque no había otro esquema. (Risas)
11:05
Pero esa no es la forma en que piensa la mayoría de los científicos. La mayoría son en realidad aburridos. Dicen que no pensarán al respecto hasta que nosotros sepamos que está bien. Pero, saben, pensamos que estábamos al menos 95 o 99 por ciento bien. Así que piénsenlo. Los siguientes cinco años, había algo como cinco referencias a nuestro trabajo en Nature -- ninguna. Entonces estábamos solos, intentando armar la tercia: ¿cómo es que -- ¿qué es lo que esta información genética hace? Era bastante obvio que aportaba la información para una molécula de ARN, y luego ¿cómo vas de ARN a proteína? Como por tres años nosotros sólo -- Intenté resolver la estructura del ARN. No rindió frutos. No daba buenas fotografías de rayos-X Era infeliz; una chica no quiso casarse conmigo. Era, saben, un tiempecito de mierda. (Risas)
12:03
Aquí hay una imagen de Francis y Yo antes de que conociera a esta chica, todavía me veo feliz. (Risas) Pero hay algo que hicimos cuando no sabíamos hacia dónde avanzar: formamos el club llamado RNA Tie Club [el Club de corbata ARN] George Gamow, otro gran físico, diseñó la corbata. Él era uno de los miembros. La pregunta era: ¿Cómo llegas de un código de cuatro letras al código de 20 letras para las proteínas? Feynman era miembro, y Teller, y amigos de Gamow. Pero esa es la única -- no, nos fotografiaron sólo dos veces. Y en ambas ocasiones, saben, uno de nosotros no tenía la corbata. Ahí está Francis arriba a la derecha, y Álex rich -- el médico-convertido-en-cristalógrafo -- junto a mi. Esta se tomó en Cambridge en Septiembre de 1955. Y estoy sonriendo, obligadamente, supongo, porque la chica que tenía, cielos, se había ido. (Risas)
13:10
Así que no fui realmente feliz sino hasta 1960, porque entonces encontramos, saben, que hay tres formas de ARN. Y sabíamos, básicamente, que el ADN provee la información para el ARN. el ARN provee la información para la proteína. Y eso le permitió a Marshall Nirenberg, saben, tomar el ARN -- ARN sintético -- ponerlo en un sistema haciendo proteína. Hizo polifenilalanina, Así que así se descubrió el código genético por primera vez, y todo terminó en 1966. Y así fue, es lo que Chris quería que hiciera, fue -- entonces ¿qué pasó desde entonces? Bueno, a ese tiempo debo volver. Cuando encontramos la estructura del ADN, di mi primera charla en Cold Spring Harbor. El físico, Leo Szilard, me vió y dijo, "¿Vas a patentar esto?" Y -- pero él sabía leyes de patentes, y que no podíamos patentarlo, porque no podías. Era inútil. (Risas)
14:17
Entonces el ADN no se volvió una molécula útil, y los abogados no entraron en la ecuación sino hasta 1973, 20 años después, cuando Boyer y Cohen en San Francisco y Stanford dieron con su método de ADN recombinante, y Stanford lo patentó e hizo mucho dinero. Al menos ellos patentaron algo que, saben, podía hacer cosas útiles. Y entonces, aprendieron cómo leer las letras del código. Y ¡pum!, teníamos, saben, teníamos la industria biotecnológica. Y, pero todavía teníamos un largo camino para, saben, Contestar la pregunta que de cierta forma marcó mi infancia, que es: ¿Cómo adquieres lo innato?
15:02
Y entonces seguiré. Ya se me acabó el tiempo, pero este es Michael Wigler, un matemático muy muy listo que se volvió físico. Y él desarrolló una técnica que escencialmente nos permite observar una muestra de ADN y, eventualmente, un millón de puntos en ésta. Ahí hay un chip, uno convencional. Luego hay uno hecho por una fotolitografía por una compañía en Madison llamada NimbleGen, que está más avanzada que Affymetrix. Y usamos su técnica. Y lo que puedes hacer es comparar ADN normal. Ahí hay cáncer, y puedes ver en la parte alta que los cánceres que son malos muestran inserciones o deleciones. Así que el ADN está realmente arruinado, mientras que si tienes oportunidad de sobrevivir, el ADN no está tan arruinado. Entonces pensamos que eso eventualmente conduciría a lo que llamamos "biopsia de ADN." Antes de recibir tratamiento para el cáncer, realmente deberían mantenerse atentos a esta técnica, y tener una idea de la cara del enemigo. No es -- es sólo una mirada parcial, pero es un -- creo que será muy muy útil.
16:10
Entonces, empezamos con cáncer de mama porque hay mucho financiamiento para ello, no es dinero del gobierno. Y ahora tengo cierto interés adquirido: Lo quiero hacer para el cáncer de próstata. Así que, ya saben, no recibes tratamiento para esto si no es peligroso. Pero Wigler, además de ver las células cancerígenas, vió células normales, e hizo una observación algo sorpresiva. Que todos tenemos como 10 lugares en nuestro genoma donde hemos perdido un gen o adquirido otro. Entonces todos somos como imperfectos. Y la pregunta es, si estamos aquí, saben, estas pequeñas pérdidas o ganancias no son tan malas. Pero si estas deleciones o amplificaciones ocurrieran en el gen equivocado, tal vez nos sentiríamos mal.
16:57
Así que la primera enfermedad que observó fue el autismo. Y la razón por la que observamos el autismo es porque teníamos el dinero para hacerlo. Observar a un individuo cuesta como 3,000 dólares. Y el padre de un niño con la enfermedad de Asperger, el autismo de alta-inteligencia, envió su análisis a una compañía convencional; no lo aceptaron. No lo podían hacer por genética convencional, pero sólo explorándolo empezamos a encontrar genes para el autismo. Y como pueden ver aquí, hay muchos de ellos. Entonces, muchos de los niños autistas lo son porque perdieron una porción grande de ADN. Quiero decir, grande a nivel molecular. Vimos un niño autista, que no tenía como cinco millones de bases en uno de sus cromosomas. Todavía no hemos observado a los padres, pero probablemente no tengan esa pérdida, o no podrían ser padres. Ahora, nuestro estudio del autismo acaba de empezar. Conseguimos 3 millones de dólares. Creo que costará al menos 10 a 20 antes de que podamos ayudar a los padres que han tenido un niño autista, o que creen que podrían tener un hijo autista, y ¿podemos notar la diferencia? Entonces esta misma técnica debería verlos todos. Es una forma maravillosa de encontrar genes.
18:12
Y entonces, concluiré diciendo que hemos visto a 20 personas con esquizofrenia. Y pensamos que tendríamos que ver probablemente a varios cientos antes de ver todo el problema. Pero como pueden ver, hay siete de 20 que tuvieron un cambio muy grande. Y aún así, en los controles había tres. Entonces, ¿cuál es el significado de los controles? ¿Estaban locos también y no lo notamos? O, saben, ¿eran normales? Yo supongo que son normales. Y lo que pensamos es que son genes que predisponen a la esquizofrenia, y ya sea que predisponga -- y luego hay sólo un sub-segmento de la población que es capaz de ser esquizofrénico.
18:56
Realmente no tenemos evidencia de esto, pero creo que, para darles una hipótesis, que la mejor suposición es que si eres zurdo, eres vulnerable a la esquizofrenia. 30% de los esquizofrénicos son zurdos, y la esquizofrenia tiene una genética muy peculiar, Lo que significa que 60% de las personas son genéticamente zurdas, pero sólo la mitad de ellos lo muestran. No tengo tiempo para decirlo. Algunas personas que creen ser diestras son genéticamente zurdas. Sólo estoy diciendo que, si piensas, oh, yo no tengo gen zurdo, entonces mi, ya saben, hijos no tienen riesgo de tener esquizofrenia. Deberían reconsiderarlo. ¿OK? (Risas)
19:43
Entonces, para mi, estos son tiempos extraordinariamente emocionantes. Debemos ser capaces de encontrar el gen para el trastorno bipolar; hay una relación. Y si consigo suficiente
