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I believe it to be hereditary in children; but this can serve him very little in his argument, as it is not of the nature of a necessary principle, and he is obliged to admit that testimony often deceives, so that we are brought back, as Hume maintains, to experience. But he is more successful when he shows that experience can prove a miracle, and this notwithstanding that nature is uniform. " For this purpose I make the following supposition. I have lived for some years near a ferry. It consists with my knowledge that the passage-boat has a thousand times crossed the river, and as many times returned safe. An unknown man, whom I have just now met, tells me in a serious manner that it is lost, and affirms that he himself saw the passengers carried down the stream and the boat overwhelmed. No person who is influenced in his judgment of things, not by philosophical subtleties, but by common sense, a much surer guide, will hesitate to declare that in such a testimony I have probable evidence of the fact asserted." The last work published by him was " The {241} Four Gospels, translated from the Greek, with Preliminary Dissertations, and Notes Critical and Explanatory," 1789, The translation, though elegant, is not idiomatic; but the dissertations show a fine critical spirit. After his death, his " Lectures on Ecclesiastical History," his " Lectures on Systematic Theology and Pulpit Eloquence," and his "Lectures on the Pastoral Character," were published. But in this work we have to look merely at the philosophical discussions in his work on the " Philosophy of Rhetoric," which was commenced at Banchory, and published in 1776.
We have seen all throughout this history that the Scottish metaphysicians following Shaftesbury were fond of speculating about beauty and taste, and that all the Scottish thinkers at this time were anxious to acquire an elegant style. Adam Smith for several years read lectures with great eclat on rhetoric and belles-lettres in Edinburgh, under the patronage of Lord Kames, and afterwards did the same in the class of logic in Glasgow University. Lord Kames himself discussed like subjects in his " Elements of Criticism." The elegant preacher Dr. Hugh Blair lectured on the subject in the university of Edinburgh, and his " Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles-lettres " is one of the most useful books ever published on the art of composition. These works were used for several ages, not only in Scotland, but even in England, and helped to make rhetoric a leading branch of study in all the American colleges. Among all the works, Campbell's " Philosophy of Rhetoric " is perhaps the most philosophical, or is, at least, the one in which there is the most frequent discussion of philosophic problems.[70]
He opens: " In speaking, there is always some end in view, or some effect which the speaker intends to produce on the hearer." The word <eloquence>, in its greatest latitude, denotes that art or talent by which the discourse is adapted to its end. In speaking of oratory suited to light and trivial matters, he endeavors to define wit. "It is the design of wit to excite in {242} the mind an agreeable surprise, and that arising not from any thing marvellous in the subject, but solely from the imagery she employs, or the strange assemblage of related ideas presented to the mind." This end is effected in one or other of these three was, -- first, in debasing things pompous or seemingly grave;" "secondly, in agarandizing things, little and frivolous; thirdly, in setting ordinary objects by means not only remote, but apparently contrary, in a particular and uncommon point of view."
He enlarges, as most of the Scottish metaphysicians have done, on the different kinds of evidence. He begins with intuitive evidence, which, he says, is of different sorts. " One is that which results purely from intellection. Of this kind is the evidence of these propositions: 'One and four make five;' things equal to the same thing are equal to one another; `the whole is greater than a part;' and, in brief, all in arithmetic and geometry. These are in effect but so many different expositions of our own general notions taken in different views." " But when the thing, though in effect coinciding, is considered under a different aspect, - - when what is single in the subject's divided in the predicate, and conversely, or when what is a whole in the one is regarded as a part of something in the other, -- such propositions lead to the discovery of innumerable and apparently remote relations." Under this head be also places, secondly, consciousness, "whence every man derives the perfect assurance which he hath of his own existence." He mentions, thirdly, common sense, giving to Buffier the credit of first noticing this principle as one of the genuine springs of our knowledge, whereas Shaftesbury had previously given it a special and important place. That he has not a definite idea of what common sense is as a philosophic principle, is evident from his stating that "in different persons it prevails in different degrees of strength," thus confounding the common principles of intelligence in all men with the sound sense possessed only by certain persons. He mentions a number of such principles, such as "whatever has a beginning has a cause;" "when there is in the effect a manifest adjustment of the several parts to a certain end, there is intelligence," "the course of nature will be the same tomorrow that it is to-day." He tries to draw distinctions between different kinds of intuitive truth. Thus, {243} in regard to primary truths of the third class, " it may be urged that it cannot be affirmed of them all at least, as it may be of the axioms in mathematics, or the assurances we have from consciousness, that the denial of them implies a contradiction." It is necessary, I believe, to draw some such distinctions as these between the various kinds of first truths; some of them seem to me to be of the nature of primitive cognitions, others of primitive judgments. But it is doubtful whether Campbell has been able to enunciate the nature of the difference. That he has no clear ideas of the relation of our primary perceptions to realities is evident from his statement. "All the axioms in mathematics are but the enunciations of certain properties in our abstract notions, distinctly perceived by the mind, but have no relation to any thing without themselves, and cannot be made the foundation of any conclusion concerning actual existence; " as if the demonstrations of Archimedes as to conic sections had not been found to apply to the elliptic orbits of the comets as discovered by Kepler.
In speaking of deductive evidence, he distinguishes between scientific and moral. (1) "The subject of the one is abstract, in dependent truth, or the unchangeable and necessary relation of ideas; that of the other, the real but often changeable and contingent connections that subsist among things actually existing." (2). Moral evidence admits degrees, demonstration doth not. (3) In the one there never can be any contrariety of proofs; in the other, there not only may be, but almost always is. (4) The one is simple, consisting of only one coherent series; whereas moral evidence is generally complicated, being in reality a bundle of independent proofs. Under moral reasoning he treats of experience, analogy, testimony, calculation of chances, &c. He discusses the nature and use of the scholastic art of syllogizing. He has no idea of the syllogism being merely an analysis of the process which passes through the mind in all ratiocination. His objections have been satisfactorily answered by Whately.
He has a very interesting chapter on the cause of that pleasure which we receive from objects or representations that excite pity and other painful feelings, criticising the explanations by others, and unfolding one of his own, which is rather complicated. We are not concerned to follow him when he enters {244} on style and elocution. Speaking of his philosophic ability, I am inclined to place him next to Reid in the Aberdeen school.
When minister at Banchory, he married Miss Farquharson, of Whitehouse, of whom "I can say with truth that I never knew a more pious, more humane woman, or a woman of better sense. She had an enlargement of sentiment not often to be found in man (who have many advantages by education), and very unlike the contracted notions of the party among whom she had been bred. You will not mistake me, my dear; it is not those of the Church of England I mean, -- a society for which I have a great respect, -- but our Scotch nonjurors, who, though they concur pretty much with the other in the ceremonial part, differ widely in the spirit they infuse." This is an extract from letters to his niece, Annie Richardson, who bad gone to a boarding-school at Durham. These letters are preserved in the Farquharson manuscripts, and are very kindly. "You may depend upon it we do not forget our dear little niece who has been so long with us, and whom we do and cannot help considering as one of ourselves, -- as an essential part of our little family." The advices given, though rather commonplace, are not on that account the less useful. " Let it be an invariable maxim with you, my dear, that no art will continue long to have influence but what is founded on truth. Deceit and falsehood may sometimes serve a present turn, but never fail sooner or later to be detected. An injury is done to the integrity of one's own mind by doing what is wrong, though it should never be discovered; the discovery which commonly follows injures one's character." His religious counsels are characteristic: " In regard to religion, you are now at the time of life when it specially claims your attention; and I shall at present only observe to you that you ought to study to be possessed of the spirit of it, which consists truly in fearing God and working righteousness; in other words, in loving God and your neighbor; but avoid carefully an excessive attachment to any particular form or mode of worship. The two extremes to be guarded against are libertinism and bigotry. The former consists in the want of a proper sense of religion; and the latter in an inordinate attachment to forms, or to any of the distinguishing badges of a particular sect or party." {245}
In the Farquharson manuscripts there are letters from Dr. Douglas, of Windsor, from which we gather some glimpses of the times. " It appears that in Oxford and Cambridge the number of students [letter dated 1789] had greatly decreased in consequence of the little attention which many of the bishops of late years had paid to their degrees." He goes on to say: The very great influx of young men from Scotland offering themselves as candidates for orders has been generally remarked. This did not use to be the case, and nothing perhaps will check it but a strictness which, in particular cases, will, I have no doubt, be dispensed with." It appears from these letters that he is in London in July, 1787, along with Dr. Beattie and his son, and that he is making arrangements about the publication of his "Dissertations." He spends a week with Dr. Douglas; and had the honor of a little conversation with his Majesty no less than three different times, and once, which is still more, with the Queen. " It is not to be questioned, that, after such distinction, I feel myself a much greater man than when you knew me at Aberdeen."
In person he was below the middle size, with a mild and delicate expression. In conversation he was pleasant and agreeable, though at times falling into fits of absence. He resigned his professorship in I 795, and soon after his principalship. He died April 1, 1796.
XXXI.-- JAMES BURNETT (LORD MONBODDO). H/E\ was descended from an ancient family in Kincardineshire, and was born in October, 1714, at Monboddo, which is beautifully situated on the southern slope of the Grampians, and commands a view of the <Howe of the Mearns>, lying below it. He received the rudiments of his education at the parish school of Laurencekirk, which lies a few miles off, and studied the usual branches at King's College, Aberdeen, where he showed a taste for Greek literature, and graduated there in 1729. It was still the habit of Scottish youths who wished to have a high education to resort to Holland, and he went to Groningen, where he continued three years studying civil law, and where, {246} it is reported, in the society of some English Gentlemen and French refugees, he contrived to get rid of his Scotch pronunciation, and to acquire an accurate knowledge of the French tongue. In 1738, he was admitted to the Scotch bar, where he rose to eminence by his learning and his shrewdness, and particularly distinguished himself in the famous Douglas case, and helped to gain the title and estates for his client. In 1767, he was raised to the bench by the title of Lord Monboddo. As a judge, he was painstaking and upright; his decisions were sound, and supported by great erudition and acuteness-. From time to time he rode up to London on horseback, and there mingled in the best literary circles, with such men as Murdoch, Armstrong, James Thomson, and Mallet, Markham, the Archbishop of York, Earl Stanhope, the first and second Earls of Mansfield, Lords Thurlow and Grantley, Bishops Horsley, Lowth, Porteous, Shipley, and Burgess, Sir John Pringle, Lewis, Scot, Seward, and Harris the author of "Hermes." While there, he showed himself at the levee and drawing-room at St. James, where the King took special notice of him.
He married a very lovely woman, Grace Farquharson, who died early, having had three children, a son and two daughters; the son and one of the daughters were cut off to the great distress of the father. The poet Burns, who received much attention from the judge, addressed a poem to that daughter, and says of her: "There has not been any thing nearly like her, in all the combinations of beauty, grace, and goodness the great Creator has formed, since Milton's Eve, on the first day of her existence." In the midst of his legal studies and his domestic afflictions be ever turned eagerly to metaphysical pursuits. In 1773, he published his elaborate work, "On the Origin and Progress of Language," and at various times from 1779 to 1799 his still larger work on " Ancient Metaphysics." At his country seat, he acted the farmer, lived on terms of pleasant familiarity with the people on his estate, was generously hospitable, and zealously promoted agriculture in his neighbor hood. At this place he received Samuel Johnson on his Scottish tour. In Boswell's account of the intercourse of the two, Lord Monboddo appears in by no means a disadvantageous light. He died at his house in Edinburgh, May 26, 1799. {247}
The eccentricities of his opinions and his conduct never interfered with his practical sagacity, or lowered him in the esteem and affection of the community. " His unbounded admiration of the customs, the literature, and the philosophy of the ancients strongly prepossessed him in favor of whatever was connected with such studies. In them, he supposed that he beheld all that was praiseworthy and excellent, while he looked on the moderns as a degenerate race, exhibiting only effeminacy and corruption. This attachment to ancient manners led him to imitate them, even in his amusements and habits of life. He was fond of athletic exercises in his youth, particularly fencing and fox-hunting, which tended to strengthen a constitution naturally healthy and robust. His general hour of rising in all seasons was six in the morning; and till a late period of his life he used the cold bath in the open air, even in the middle of winter. He took a light, early dinner, and a plentiful supper. The ancient practice of anointing, even, was not forgotten, though the lotion he used was not the oil of the ancients, but a saponaceous liquid composed of rose- water, olive oil, saline aromatic spirit, and Venice soap, which, when well mixed, resembled cream. This he applied at bedtime, before a large fire, after coming from a warm bath. His method of travelling was also in conformity to his partiality for ancient customs. A carriage, which was not in common use among the ancients, he considered as an engine of effeminacy and sloth; and to be dragged at the tail of a horse, instead of mounting upon his back, appeared to him to be a truly ludicrous degradation of the genuine dignity of human nature."[71] In Kames's Life it is said his " temper was affectionate, friendly, social. He was fond of convivial intercourse, and it was his daily custom to unbend himself amidst a select party of literary friends, whom he invited to an early supper. The entertainment itself partook of the costume of the ancients; it had all the variety and abundance of a principal meal; and the master of the feast crowned his wine, like Anacreon, with a garland of roses. His conversation, too, had a race and flavor peculiarly its own. It was nervous, sententious, and tinctured with genuine wit. His apothegms, or, as his favorite Greeks would rather term them, were singularly terse and forcible, {248} and the grave manner in which he often conveyed the keenest irony, and the eloquence with which he supported his paradoxical theories, afforded the highest amusements of those truly Attic banquets which will be long remembered by all who had the pleasure of partaking in them."
I confess that I have felt a deep interest in reading the philosophical works of Lord Monboddo, -- he is so unlike any other Scotch metaphysician, he is so unlike his age. As appearing among a body of inductive inquirers, and in the middle of the eighteenth century, he looks very much like a megatherium coming in upon us in the historical period. His society is not with the modern empiricists, not even with the Latins, but with Plato and the Neo-Platonists, with Aristotle and his commentators. As regards the higher Greek philosophy, he is the most erudite scholar that Scotland has produced, not excepting even Sir William Hamilton. His favorite author among the moderns is Cudworth, whom he characterizes as " more learned in the whole ancient philosophy, the older as well as the later, than any modern author I know." He speaks of Locke's Essay as "no other than a hasty collection of crude, undigested thoughts, by a man who thought and reasoned by himself upon subjects of the greatest difficulty and deepest speculation, without assistance of leaming." He refers to Andrew Baxter, and charges the Newtonion astronomy with making the system of the heavens a mere machine; it supposes the universe had a beginning in time, contrary to all the ancients, who held that it " was an eternal emanation of an eternal being." It is mind that moves the celestial bodies, mind moving simply and uniformly. He refers to Berkeley, and also to Hume, lately deceased, and says of the latter, that his chief argument arises from "confounding sensations and ideas." He refers also to Reid's "Inquiry," and I suppose that the rising Scottish school was before him when he speaks of it as an unsatisfactory philosophy, which would maintain that " the perception of every sensible object is necessarily accompanied with a belief of its existence; that is the constitution of our nature, and that we are to inquire no more about it." He holds it " to be impossible that intellect can believe any thing without a reason." He maintains that we do not form {249} ideas by nature. "We mistake habits of judging acquired by experience for the natural perceptions of sense." He thinks that by the eye we perceive objects first as double and inverted. His postulatum is that "the evidence of consciousness is infallible." " By consciousness, we know that we have perceptions of sense." "In the perceptions of sense, every man is conscious that he is passive, and that he is moved or excited to sensation by some thing." Of all his contemporaries, he is most thoroughly in sympathy with Mr. Harris, the author of " Hermes," with whom he corresponded.
We may here give an extract-letter from Lord Monboddo to Mr. Harris, in return for presentation copy of " Hermes."
"Edinburgh, Wednesday, 26 March, 1766. -- As your works first introduced me to the Greek Philosophy, so this present you have now made me has revived my taste for that study, which, though never quite extinguished, had been lost for some time amid the hurry of law business. I fell on greedily, as soon as the book was sent me, and began with the most philosophical part of your I Hermes,' viz., the chapter upon General Ideas, which you have explained most truly and philosophically, according to the dictates of that school to which, I confess, I have entirely addicted myse
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